Archipel Study Report : The interplay between Systems- and Software- Engineering

The high tech equipment industry in the Netherlands develops cyber physical systems that are increasingly enabled by software. The interplay between Systems Engineering (SE) and Software Engineering (SWE) remains persistently problematic. Organisations report recurring symptoms such as integration issues, emergent behaviour problems, rework, delays, and budget overruns. This study, conducted with researchers from four companies and four universities, investigated the underlying generative mechanisms driving these symptoms. Using causal modelling and structured workshops, the research reveals that the SE–SWE gap is systemic. It arises from complex reinforcing feedback loops involving organisational structures, misaligned development cadences, limited shared system knowledge, historical undervaluation of software and software engineering, siloed processes, etc. The report identifies that many current industry initiatives address symptoms rather than causes, resulting in limited impact. To meaningfully improve the interplay, organisations must adopt a holistic portfolio of interventions that target structural, behavioural, and perception‑level factors simultaneously. Key recommendations include involving software engineering in strategic decision‑making, aligning architectural decompositions, synchronising workflows and cadences, investing in cross‑disciplinary training, redesigning organisational structures to reduce distance, enabling safe‑to‑fail learning environments, and co‑creating system requirements. Finally, the study provides guidance on researching sociotechnical systems through co‑creation, causal reasoning, and multi‑stakeholder workshops. It concludes with directions for future research aimed at strengthening engineering systems and improving long‑term organisational learning.