Title
Verification of exposure to chemical warfare agents through analysis of persistent biomarkers in plants
Author
de Bruin-Hoegée, J.M.
Lamriti, L.
Langenberg, J.P.
Olivier, R.C.M.
Chau, L.F.
van der Schans, M.J.
Noort, D.
van Asten, A.C.
Publication year
2023
Abstract
The continuing threats of military conflicts and terrorism may involve the misuse of chemical weapons. The present study aims to use environmental samples to find evidence of the release of such agents at an incident scene. A novel approach was developed for identifying protein adducts in plants. Basil (Ocimum basilicum), bay laurel leaf (Laurus nobilis) and stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) were exposed to 2.5 to 150 mg m-3 sulfur mustard, 2.5 to 250 mg m-3 sarin, and 0.5 to 25 g m-3 chlorine gas. The vapors of the selected chemicals were generated under controlled conditions in a dedicated set-up. After sample preparation and digestion, the samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and liquid chromatography high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS), respectively. In the case of chlorine exposure, it was found that 3-chloro- and 3,5-dichlorotyrosine adducts were formed. As a result of sarin exposure, the o-isopropyl methylphosphonic acid adduct to tyrosine could be analyzed, and after sulfur mustard exposure the N1- and N3-HETE-histidine adducts were identified. The lowest vapor exposure levels for which these plant adducts could be detected, were 2.5 mg m-3 for sarin, 50 mg m-3 for chlorine and 12.5 mg m-3 for sulfur mustard. Additionally, protein adducts following a liquid exposure of only 2 nmol Novichock A-234, 0.4 nmol sarin and 0.2 nmol sulfur mustard could still be observed. For both vapor and liquid exposure, the amount of adduct formed increased with the level of exposure. In all cases synthetic reference standards were used for unambiguous identification. The window of opportunity for investigation of agent exposure through the analysis of plant material was found to be remarkably long. Even three months after the actual exposure, the biomarkers could still be detected in the living plants, as well as in dried leaves. An important benefit of the current method is that a relatively simple and generic sample work-up procedure can be applied for all agents studied. In conclusion, the presented work clearly demonstrates the possibility of analyzing chemical warfare agent biomarkers in plants, which is useful for forensic reconstructions, including the investigation into alleged use in conflict areas. (C) 2023 The Royal Society of Chemistry.
Subject
Amino acids
Biomarkers
Chemical warfare
Liquid chromatography
Mass spectrometry
Plants (botany)
Proteins
Sulfur
Bay leaves
Chemical warfare agents
Chemical weapons
Environmental sample
Exposed to
Military conflicts
Ocimum basilicum
Protein adducts
Sulphur mustard
Urtica dioica
Chlorine
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http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:7ad37f97-47e1-4217-9b31-d4cf47011e60
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1039/d2ay01650h
TNO identifier
980961
Publisher
Royal Society of Chemistry
ISSN
1759-9660
Source
Analytical Methods, 15 (15), 135-248
Document type
article